The Overall Effects Of Covid-19 On The Basis Of Management And Treatment In Pediatric Patients: A Complete Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
COVID-19 is a disease that is caused by a novel coronavirus known as SARS-COV-2 that has been spreading around the world. Controlling COVID-19 is more difficult due to the highly infectious nature of the disease and clinical complications in patients. Everyone worldwide has struggled with it since it was first introduced in Wuhan, in the Chinese state of Hubei. It reaches every corner, infecting individuals from any walk of life. Everybody has been affected in some way, with the majority usually negatively. Fortunately, they have not yet experienced the direct health effects of COVID-19, but this emergency has had a major effect on their overall health. The viral infection may stay in the atmosphere for a long time, and it mostly spreads through the air. It affects the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes. Children’s health, social, and financial well-being are all negatively impacted by the COVID-19 epidemic, with the poorest children, such as those who are homeless and those who are detained, being most negatively impacted. School closings, social isolation, and loneliness enhance children’s risk of nutritional deficiency, increase their exposure to domestic abuse, build their level of anxiety and stress, and decrease their access to essential family and child care services. According to research, the virus is continually changing and spreading through asymptomatic carriers, which indicates a serious threat to global health. This paper provides an overview of the most recent data on the overall effects of COVID-19 on the basis of management and treatment in pediatric patients.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease 2019. https://www.who.int/ emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019 (2020).
Cruz, A. & Zeichner, S. COVID-19 in children: initial characterization of the pediatric disease. Pediatrics https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0834 (2020).
Rothan, H. A. & Byrareddy, S. N. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J. Autoimmun. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jaut.2020.102433 (2020).
Pyrc, K.; Berkhout, B.; Van der Hoek, L. The novel human coronaviruses NL63 and HKU1. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 3051–3057. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sawicki, S.G.; Sawicki, D.L.; Siddell, S.G. A contemporary view of coronavirus transcription. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 20–29. [CrossRef]
Wang, L.; Byrum, B.; Zhang, Y. Detection and genetic characterization of deltacoronavirus in pigs, Ohio, USA, 2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1227–1230. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Zhu, N.; Zhang, D. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N. Engl. J. Med( 2019).
De Wit, E.; Van Doremalen, N.; Falzarano, D.; Munster, V.J. SARS and MERS: Recent insights into emerging coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2016, 14, 523–534. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Van der Hoek, L.; Pyrc, K.; Jebbink, M.F.; Vermeulen-Oost, W.; Berkhout, R.J.M.; Wolthers, K.C.; Wertheim-van Dillen, P.; Kaandorp, J.; Spaargaren, J.; Berkhout, B. Identification of a new human coronavirus. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 368–373. [CrossRef]
Wei M, Yuan J, Liu Y, et al. Novel Coronavirus Infection in Hospitalized Infants Under 1 Year of Age in China. JAMA. 2020;323(13):1313.
Adeyinka A, Bailey K, Pierre L, et al. COVID 19 infection: pediatric perspectives. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2021;2(1): e12375.
Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in China. JAMA. 2020;323(13):1239.
Lee P-I, Hu Y-L, Chen P-Y, et al. Are children less susceptible to COVID-19? J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):371–372.
Felsenstein S, Hedrich CM. COVID-19 in children and young people. Lancet Rheumatol. 2020;2(9):e514–e516.
Ziegler CGK, Allon SJ, Nyquist SK, et al. SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 Is an interferon-stimulated gene in human airway epithelial cells and is detected in specific cell subsets across tissues. Cell. 2020;181 (5):1016–1035.e19.
Carsetti R, Quintarelli C, Quinti I, et al. The immune system of children: the key to understanding SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility? Lancet Child Adolesc Heal. 2020;4(6):414–416.
Zimmermann P, Curtis N. Why is COVID-19 less severe in children? A review of the proposed mechanisms underlying the age-related difference in severity of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Arch Dis Child. 2021;106:429-439.
Chang T-H, Wu J-L, Chang L-Y. Clinical characteristics and diagnostic challenges of pediatric COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Formos Med Assoc. 2020;119(5):982–989.
Tosif S, Neeland MR, Sutton P, et al. Immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 in three children of parents with symptomatic COVID-19. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):5703.
Steinman JB, Lum FM, Ho PP-K, et al. Reduced development of COVID-19 in children reveals molecular checkpoints gating pathogenesis illuminating potential therapeutics. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117(40):24620–24626.
Henry BM, Lippi G, Plebani M. Laboratory abnormalities in children with novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2020;58 (7):1135–1138.
Brookman S, Cook J, Zucherman M, et al. Effect of the new SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 on children and young people. Lancet Child Adolesc Heal. 2021;5(4):e9–e10.
Mwenda M, Saasa N, Sinyange N, et al. Detection of B.1.351 SARS-CoV-2 variant strain-Zambia, December 2020. 2021. [Cited 2021 Jul 18]. Available from: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/ 102801
Christy A (2020) COVID-19: a review for the pediatric neurologist. J Child Neurol 35(13):934–939
Martinkevich P, Larsen LL, Græsholt-Knudsen T, Hesthaven G, Hellfritzsch MB, Petersen KK et al (2020) Physical child abuse demands increased awareness during health and socioeconomic crises like COVID-19: a review and education material. Acta Orthop 91(5):527–533
Higgins DJ, McCabe MP (2001) Multiple forms of child abuse and neglect: adult retrospective reports. Aggress Violent Behav 6(6):547–578
Saini SM, Hofmann CR, Pantelis C, Everall IP, Bousman CA (2019) Systematic review and critical appraisal of child abuse measurement instruments. Psychiatry Res 1(272):106–113
Ulfat A (2017) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in children of Kashmir and role of nurse. Indian J Psychiatr Nurs Care 14(6). https://doi.org/ 10.4103/2231-1505.262422
Mamani JI (2018) Child labor and reproduction of family poverty in Puno: a pending social debt. OALib 05(04):1–14
Sharma M, Aggarwal S, Madaan P, Saini L, Bhutani M (2021) Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on sleep in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med [Internet] 84:259 (/pmc/articles/ PMC8687656/). Cited 29 Sep 2022.
Alimoradi Z, Broström A, Tsang HWH, Grifths MD, Haghayegh S, Ohayon MM et al (2021) Sleep problems during COVID-19 pandemic and its’ association to psychological distress: a systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine [Internet] 36:100916. Available from: http://www.thela ncet.com/article/S2589537021001966/fulltext). Cited 29 Sep 2022
Ustuner Top F, Cam HH (2022) Sleep disturbances in school-aged children 6–12 years during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. J Pediatr Nurs 1(63):125–130
Knowland VCP, van Rijn E, Gaskell MG, Henderson L (2022) UK children’s sleep and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychol 10(1):76
Patrick SW, Henkhaus LE, Zickafoose JS, Lovell K, Halvorson A, Loch S et al (2020) Well-being of parents and children during the COVID-19 pandemic: a national survey. Pediatrics 146(4):e2020016824
Wilke NG, Howard AH, Pop D (2020) Data-informed recommendations for services providers working with vulnerable children and families during the COVID-19 pandemic. Child Abus Negl 1:110
Dodge KA, Bates JE, Pettit GS (1990) Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science (80-) 250(4988):1678–83
Pereda N, Díaz-Faes DA (2020) Family violence against children in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic: a review of current perspectives and risk factors. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health [Internet] 14(1):1–7 Available from: https://capmh.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13034- 020-00347-1. Cited 29 Sep 2022
M. Hoffmann, H. Kleine-Weber, S. Schroeder, N. Kruger, T. Herrler, S. Erichsen, T. S. Schiergens, G. Herrler, N.H. Wu, A. Nitsche, M.A. Muller, C. Drosten, S. Pohlmann, SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor, Cell 181 (2020) 271–280, e278.
J. Frontera, S. Mainali, E.L. Fink, C.L. Robertson, M. Schober, W. Ziai, D. Menon, P. M. Kochanek, J.I. Suarez, R. Helbok, M. McNett, S.H. Chou, G.C.-N. Study, Global consortium study of neurological dysfunction in COVID-19 (GCS-NeuroCOVID): study design and rationale, Neurocrit. Care 33 (2020) 25–34.
R. Chen, K. Wang, J. Yu, D. Howard, L. French, Z. Chen, C. Wen, Z. Xu, The spatial and cell-type distribution of SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 in human and mouse brain, bioRxiv (2020), 2020.2004.2007.030650.
D.H. Brann, T. Tsukahara, C. Weinreb, M. Lipovsek, K. Van den Berge, B. Gong, R. Chance, I.C. Macaulay, H.-j. Chou, R. Fletcher, D. Das, K. Street, H.R. de Bezieux, Y.-G. Choi, D. Risso, S. Dudoit, E. Purdom, J.S. Mill, R.A. Hachem, H. Matsunami, D.W. Logan, B.J. Goldstein, M.S. Grubb, J. Ngai, S.R. Datta, Non-neuronal expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry genes in the olfactory system suggests mechanisms underlying COVID-19-associated anosmia, bioRxiv (2020), 2020.2003.2025.009084.
Gupta, M.V. Madhavan, K. Sehgal, N. Nair, S. Mahajan, T.S. Sahrawian, B. Bikdeli, N. Ahluwalia, J.C. Ausiello, E.Y. Wan, D.E. Freedberg, A.J. Kirtane, S.A. Parikh, M. S. Maurer, A.S. Nordvig, D. Accili, J.M. Bathon, S. Mohan, K.A. Bauer, M.B. Leon, H.M. Krumholz, N. Uriel, M.R. Mehra, M.S.V. Elkind, G.W. Stone, A. Schwartz, D. D. Ho, J.P. Bilezikian, D.W. Landry, Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19, Nat. Med. 26 (2020) 1017–1032.
E. Song, C. Zhang, B. Israelow, A. Lu-Culligan, A.V. Prado, S. Skriabine, P. Lu, O.- E. Weizman, F. Liu, Y. Dai, K. Szigeti-Buck, Y. Yasumoto, G. Wang, C. Castaldi, J. Heltke, E. Ng, J. Wheeler, M.M. Alfajaro, E. Levavasseur, B. Fontes, N. G. Ravindra, D. Van Dijk, S. Mane, M. Gunel, A. Ring, S.A. Jaffar Kazmi, K. Zhang, C.B. Wilen, T.L. Horvath, I. Plu, S. Haik, J.-L. Thomas, A. Louvi, S.F. Farhadian, A. Huttner, D. Seilhean, N. Renier, K. Bilguvar, A. Iwasaki, Neuroinvasion of SARSCoV-2 in human and mouse brain, bioRxiv (2020), 2020.2006.2025.169946.
E. Gulko, P. Overby, S. Ali, H. Mehta, F. Al-Mufti, W. Gomes, Vessel wall enhancement and focal cerebral arteriopathy in a pediatric patient with acute infarct and COVID-19 infection, AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. (2020).
F.A. Klok, M. Kruip, N.J.M. van der Meer, M.S. Arbous, D. Gummer’s, K.M. Kant, F. H.J. Kaptein, J. van Paassen, M.A.M. Stals, M.V. Huisman, H. Endeman, Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19, Thromb. Res. 191 (2020) 145–147.
H.R. Niazkar, B. Zibaee, A. Nasimi, N. Bahri, The neurological manifestations of COVID-19: a review article, Neurol. Sci. 41 (2020) 1667–1671
The COVID NMA Initiative 2021. Available from: https://covidnma.com.
Living Guidelines: National COVID-19 Clinical Evidence Taskforce 2021. Available from: www.covid19evidence.net.au.
Australian Government Department of Health. Australian prescription medicine decision summaries: Xevudy. 20 August 2021.
Brown SM, Doom JR, Lechuga-Peña S, Watamura SE, Koppels T (2020) Stress and parenting during the global COVID-19 pandemic. Child Abus Negl 1:110
Gupta S, Jawanda K (2020) resumen de políticas: el impacto de COVID-19 en los niños 15. Acta Paediatr Int J Paediatr [Internet] 109(11):2181–3 Available from: https://www.un. org/sites/un2.un. org/fles/policy_brief_ on_covid_impact_on_children_16_april_2020.pdf
Protecting children online | UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/protection/ violence-against-children-online. Accessed 26 Oct 2022
Hsiao C-M (2022) Efects on second waves of COVID-19 epidemics: social stringency, economic forces and public health. Theor Econ Lett 12(01):287–320
Jones KD, Thitiri J, Ngari M, Berkley JA (2014) Childhood malnutrition: toward an understanding of infections, infammation, and antimicrobials. Food Nutr Bull 35:S64-70
Tezer H, Bedir DT (2020) Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in children. Turkish J Med Sci 50(9):592–603
Alsohime F, Temsah MH, Al-Nemri AM, Somily AM, Al-Subaie S (2020) COVID-19 infection prevalence in pediatric population: etiology, clinical presentation, and outcome. J Infect Public Heal 13(12):1791–1796
Capanna F, Haydar A, McCarey C, Bernini Carri E, Bartha Rasero J, Tsibizova V et al (2022) Preparing an obstetric unit in the heart of the epidemic strike of COVID-19: quick reorganization tips. J Matern Neonatal Med 35(7):1412–1418
Ding Q, Lu P, Fan Y, Xia Y, Liu M (2020) The clinical characteristics of pneumonia patients coinfected with 2019 novel coronavirus and infuenza virus in Wuhan. China J Med Virol 92(9):1549–1555
Guedes A, Bott S, Garcia-Moreno C, Colombini M (2016) Bridging the gaps: a global review of intersections of violence against women and violence against children. Glob Heal Action 9(1):31516
Amin U (2017) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in children of Kashmir and role of nurse. Indian J Psychiatr Nurs 14(1):37